Fig. 8. Intrathecal QX-314 did not produce increased activation of microglia and astrocytes. Antibodies directed against ionized calcium-binding adapter-1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein were used to label microglia and astrocytes in samples from the same segments of the spinal cord used for histology staining. No noticeable differences were detected in ionized calcium-binding adapter-1 or glial fibrillary acidic protein expression patterns in the spinal cord dorsal horn between vehicle, QX-314, capsaicin, or the QX-314/capsaicin combination treated animals. No evidence of increased activation of microglia or astrocytes was detected based on the morphology of the cell bodies and processes (A ) and the numbers of microglia (B ) and astrocytes (C ) counted per microscopic field (at ×40) within the dorsal horn of the spinal cords (Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA; P = 0.117 for microglia, n = 4; P = 0.913 for astrocytes, n = 4). Cap = capsaicin; GFAP = glial fibrillary acidic protein; Iba1 = ionized calcium-binding adapter-1; QX = QX-314; Veh = vehicle.