Blood Pressure and End-tidal Carbon Dioxide Ranges during Aneurysm Occlusion and Neurologic Outcome after an Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Despite considerable treatment improvements over the past decades, case fatality and disability rates for patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage remain high.^1–3  After aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, the cerebral autoregulation is disrupted and cerebral blood flow may become blood pressure dependent. Therefore, in patients undergoing general anesthesia for an intervention to obliterate the aneurysm, maintaining adequate blood pressure is considered important to avoid both hypertension-related rebleeding, as well as hypotension-related cerebral ischemia.^1,4  However, because only a few relatively small studies have been performed in this specific population,^5–7  solid recommendations on periprocedural blood pressure targets are lacking.² 

In addition, arterial carbon dioxide tension (Paco₂) reactivity seems preserved, or even increased, in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients; therefore, hypocapnia can aggravate secondary ischemia through cerebral vasoconstriction.⁸  Hypocapnia has been shown to be associated with a poor neurologic outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury, with ischemic stroke, or after a cardiac arrest.^9–11  While evidence specifically for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients is lacking, there is evidence supporting the benefit of hypercapnia for postoperative outcomes in the general surgery population.^12–14  Although Paco₂not monitored continuously, it is well reflected in the end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETco₂), which is routinely monitored during anesthesia.

All together, there is insufficient evidence to determine optimal target ranges for both ETco₂ and mean arterial pressure (MAP) during anesthesia for interventions to treat cerebral aneurysms after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Therefore, this study sets out to explore the association between several intraoperative ETco₂ and MAP thresholds and a poor neurologic outcome in a large cohort of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients who were treated according to a standardized institutional strategy based on current clinical consensus. The results may guide clinicians in setting periprocedural target ranges in the future. On the basis of the aforementioned literature, we hypothesized that prolonged (greater than 10 min) intraoperative hypocapnia (ETco₂ < 35 mmHg), hypotension (MAP < 80 mmHg), and hypertension (MAP > 100 mmHg) are associated with a poor neurologic outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients receiving general anesthesia for interventions to treat cerebral aneurysms.

This study was conducted in adherence to the STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) statement for observational research.¹⁵  The local medical ethics committee approved the study protocol, and the need for informed consent was waived (University Medical Center Utrecht Medical Research Ethics Committee 16 to 194/C).

This retrospective observational study included adult patients who received general anesthesia for neurosurgical clipping or endovascular coiling of a ruptured intracranial aneurysm at the University Medical Center Utrecht in the Netherlands between January 2003 and December 2015. Patients who were treated within 2 weeks after the ictus were eligible for inclusion. Reinterventions in patients who had more than one episode of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage were included as a new patient if the time between these episodes was more than 1 yr. Patients were excluded if they underwent bypass surgery for a giant aneurysm. Furthermore, patients were excluded if fewer than a total of 20 valid ETco₂ and MAP measurements were available, or when no MAP and ETco₂ data were recorded for at least 10 consecutive minutes during the procedure. When no ETco₂ data were recorded, patients could still be included for blood pressure analyses and vice versa. Patients without a known baseline blood pressure were excluded from analyses for relative blood pressure thresholds only.

Patients were treated according to a local standardized protocol,⁵  and the preferred neurosurgical treatment modality was chosen on a multidisciplinary level and irrespective of the conduct of this study. Management of blood pressure and ETco₂ were left to the judgment of the attending anesthesiologist. The protocol prescribed to maintain ETco₂ between 35 and 45 mmHg and to keep the systolic blood pressure (SBP) less than 180 mmHg before treatment and less than 220 mmHg after securing the aneurysm, while maintaining a MAP greater than 80 mmHg.

The primary outcome was the neurologic outcome at discharge, using the Glasgow Outcome Scale¹⁶  (see table 1, Supplemental Digital Content 1, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B791, listing neurologic scoring systems). The Glasgow Outcome Scale at three months was used as a secondary outcome. We defined a good outcome as a Glasgow Outcome Scale score of 4 or 5, and a poor outcome as a Glasgow Outcome Scale score 1 to 3.

To analyze the effect of ETco₂ and blood pressure on a poor neurologic outcome, we determined the mean ETco₂ and the mean MAP for each patient. However, as those summary measures do not sufficiently take normal intraoperative variability into account,¹⁷  we further used a time-weighted average area under the curve for several absolute and relative thresholds. The time-weighted average area under the curve represents the time spent under or above a certain threshold, adjusted for the total measurement time. For ETco₂, we defined the following absolute thresholds: less than 30 mmHg, less than 35 mmHg, less than 40 mmHg, and less than 45 mmHg, based on clinical relevance. For blood pressure, the following absolute and relative thresholds were defined: MAP < 60 mmHg, MAP < 70 mmHg, MAP < 80 mmHg, MAP > 90 mmHg, MAP > 100 mmHg and MAP < 70%, MAP < 60%, and MAP < 50% of the baseline MAP, based on reported thresholds in the literature.^18,19 

To define the baseline MAP, we used the mean of all preinduction MAPs per patient obtained at the operation room. Previous research in the general surgery population has shown that preinduction blood pressure can be used as a baseline for research purposes.²⁰ 

Data on patient characteristics, comorbidities, and chronic medication use were collected from electronic medical files. Data on preoperative neurologic condition, neurologic complications, and postoperative neurologic outcomes were obtained from the local hospital aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage registration database that contains data from admission until three months after the ictus.

Intraoperative data were extracted from the electronic anesthesia record keeping system (Anstat; Carepoint, Netherlands). Invasive blood pressure measurements, ETco₂ values and respiratory minute ventilation values were recorded as the median per minute; noninvasive blood pressure measurements were recorded every time a blood pressure was measured (i.e., at 1- to 3-min intervals). Respiratory minute ventilation was calculated as tidal volume times respiratory rate. To avoid influences from induction and emergence from anesthesia on ETco₂ and MAP values, extraction of intraoperative data started 10 min after surgical incision and stopped 10 min before the end of the procedure. The duration of surgery was defined as the time between surgical incision and end of the procedure. Data artifacts were excluded using criteria based on prior research (see table 1, Supplemental Digital Content 2, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B792, presenting the artifact definitions used for intraoperatively measured variables).^21,22 

No statistical power calculation was conducted before the start of the study. The sample size was based on the available data.

As complete case analyses are known to lead to biased effect estimates, missing values were handled using multiple imputation.²³  We used the Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations package in R, creating 30 imputation sets.²⁴  Analyses were conducted in each of these datasets; subsequently estimates were pooled using Rubin’s rule.^25,26  Missing data for ETco₂, MAP and respiratory minute ventilation were not imputed.

Baseline characteristics were compared between patients with a good outcome and poor outcome at discharge, and between patients presenting for endovascular coiling and neurosurgical clipping using a chi-square test, Fisher exact test, independent t test, or Mann–Whitney U test where appropriate. Continuous variables were checked for normality using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.

Since changes in blood pressure are known to affect ETco₂ concentrations by influencing the ETco₂–Paco₂ gradient,²⁷  we first estimated the effect of changes in MAP on changes in ETco₂. First, in each patient, the median of all obtained ETco₂, MAP, and respiratory minute ventilation values was calculated. Next, we determined the difference (Δ) between the median and each other value of ETco₂, MAP, and respiratory minute ventilation. ΔMAP and Δrespiratory minute ventilation were paired with ΔETco₂ values that were obtained one minute later, to allow for a change in ETco₂ to occur. Next, because a nonlinear relationship between ΔETco₂ and ΔMAP was expected, a univariate linear quantile mixed regression model was made with 10 quantiles, using ΔETco₂ as the dependent variable, ΔMAP as the independent variable, and a random intercept per individual to take clustering within patients into account. Afterward, a multivariable analysis was used to adjust for changes in respiratory minute volume.

We considered that ETco₂ values should be adjusted for MAP values in the subsequent analyses if there was a significant and clinically relevant association between ETco₂ and MAP. In this, an effect estimate of 1.1 or higher for every 10 mmHg change in MAP was considered to be clinically relevant.

In line with previous studies,^10,28  we first calculated a mean MAP and mean ETco₂ for each patient. Second, the area under the curve was calculated for each predefined threshold as mentioned in “Material and Methods, MAP and ETco₂”, for both MAP and ETco₂. This area under the curve was adjusted for the total measurement time, resulting in a time-weighted average area under the curve (see fig. 1, Supplemental Digital Content 3, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B793, showing how the area under the curve was calculated for several thresholds).

Next, univariable Poisson regression models were built using mean MAP, mean ETco₂, time-weighted average area under the curve MAP, or time-weighted average area under the curve ETco₂ as the independent variable, respectively, and the dichotomized Glasgow Outcome Scale score at discharge as the dependent variable. We used Poisson regression analyses with robust standard errors to present effect estimates as risk ratios, because a poor neurologic outcome is relatively common and the rare disease assumption would not hold.²⁹  This means that an odds ratio, as found in a logistic regression analysis, would not approach the corresponding risk ratio, hampering the interpretation of our results for clinical practice. Because we expected a nonlinear relationship in these models based on previous research,³⁰  a restricted cubic spline function with three, four, and five knots was tested for the best fit, using Akaike information criterion.³¹  A multivariable analysis was subsequently used to adjust for potential confounders. The variables shown in table 1 were considered a potential confounder and were checked for collinearity using a Pearson correlation matrix. Variables with a correlation of less than 0.6 were included in the model. In case of multicollinearity, the clinically most relevant variable was included. In addition, year of procedure was included as a potential confounder to account for possible changes in clinical practice over time.

To enhance clinical interpretation, the Poisson regression analyses were repeated using categorized versions of the independent variables, where categorization was based on distribution of the data and inspection of the spline plots. We used the following quantiles: 0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 0.9, and 1.0, with the 0.5 to 0.75 quantile as the reference category.

Finally, we explored the effect of extreme hypocapnia and hypotension further by repeating the analyses using “having at least one ETco₂ value less than 30 mmHg” and “having at least one MAP value less than 60 mmHg” as the independent variable, respectively.

To explore whether preoperative clinical condition, vulnerability to cerebral vasospasm and treatment modality modified the associations, we repeated all analyses for neurologic outcome at discharge with the following interaction terms: preoperative World Federation of Neurological Surgeons Grading System grade (dichotomized in grades 4 to 5 and grades 1 to 3; see table 1, Supplemental Digital Content 1, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B791, listing neurologic scoring systems), timing of intervention (dichotomized in early [less than or equal to 2 days after the ictus] and late [greater than 2 days after the ictus]) and treatment modality (clipping or coiling).

The aforementioned analyses were repeated for the Glasgow Outcome Scale score at three months as a secondary outcome measure. Bonferroni correction was used to correct for the number of categories within a threshold, and P values and CIs were reported accordingly. For all other analyses, a P value less than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. All statistical tests were two tailed. The statistical analyses were performed with R (Version 3.3.1; R, Inc., for Macintosh).³² 

In the study period, 1,484 patients were admitted for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, and 1,099 (74.1%) were eligible for inclusion in our analyses (fig. 1). Of these patients, 447 (40.7%) had a poor neurologic outcome at discharge.

According to the local protocol for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients, general anesthesia was maintained with propofol (induction bolus 1 to 3 mg/kg, maintenance infusion 4 to 10 mg · kg^-1 · h^-1), an opioid (either sufentanil or remifentanil), and a neuromuscular blocking agent (either rocuronium or atracurium). In all patients, noninvasive blood pressure measurements were used. In addition, in all patients undergoing clipping, and by indication in some patients during coiling, blood pressure was measured continuously by using an intra-arterial catheter. Episodes of hypotension were treated with ephedrine, phenylephrine, or norepinephrine (bolus and/or continuous infusion), and episodes of hypertension were generally treated with a mixed α- and β-adrenergic blocking drug (labetalol) or an α2-adrenergic agonist (clonidine).

Patient characteristics were compared for patients with a good neurologic outcome and poor neurologic outcome at discharge, and for patients presenting for endovascular coiling and neurosurgical clipping (table 1). Most demographic factors, medical history and preadmission medication, neurologic and periprocedural factors, and complications were associated with neurologic outcome. Patients with a poor neurologic outcome received more norepinephrine during the intervention. There was no significant difference in treatment modality or in procedure and anesthesia time between patients with a good outcome and a poor outcome. Patients treated with endovascular coiling were, on average, older and had a higher American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status class. During coiling, phenylephrine was frequently used as a vasopressor, whereas norepinephrine was primarily used during clipping. Patients treated with coiling suffered less from electrolyte imbalances, anemia, postintervention neurologic decline, and cerebral edema. In addition, they were treated less frequently with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage (defined as requiring an external ventricular drain, external lumbar drain, or lumbar punctures).

Due to missing values in either ETco₂ or MAP values, 1,096 patients (99.7%) could be included for analysis of ETco₂ thresholds, 974 (88.6%) for analysis of absolute MAP thresholds, and 775 (70.5%) could be included for analysis of relative MAP thresholds, because preinduction blood pressure measurements were missing in 199 patients. Data on the extent of missing data and the variables used for multiple imputation are provided in Supplemental Digital Content 4 (https://links.lww.com/ALN/B794), as are the results from the univariable complete case analysis for neurologic outcome at discharge to show the impact of imputation on observed estimates.

The median of the mean ETco₂ was 43 mmHg (interquartile range, 41 to 45) in patients with a good neurologic outcome and 44 mmHg (interquartile range, 42 to 46) in patients with a poor neurologic outcome (P < 0.001); the median was 43 mmHg (41 to 45) in patients treated with neurosurgical clipping, and 44 mmHg (42 to 46) in patients who received endovascular coiling (P < 0.001).

The median of the mean MAP was 80 mmHg (interquartile range, 72 to 88) and 81 mmHg (interquartile range, 74 to 88) in patients with good neurologic outcome and poor neurologic outcome, respectively (P = 0.021). In patients treated with neurosurgical clipping, the median of the mean MAP was 82 (interquartile range, 75 to 89), while the median was 79 (71 to 87) in patients receiving endovascular coiling (P < 0.001).

In 660 patients (60.1%), paired data for ETco₂, MAP, and respiratory minute ventilation were available, meaning that 1 min before an ETco₂ value was measured, a MAP and respiratory minute ventilation value were registered, to be used to estimate the association between ETco₂ and MAP. After adjustment for respiratory minute ventilation, the results from the linear quantile mixed regression analysis showed a significant but not clinically relevant association between MAP and ETco₂: for most quantiles of ETco₂, ETco₂ increased with factor 1.05 (95% CI, 1.04 to 1.06; P < 0.001) per 10 mmHg increase in MAP (fig. 2).

A restricted cubic spline regression analysis with three knots (at the tenth, fiftieth, and ninetieth percentile) resulted in the best fit. On the basis of distribution of the data and inspection of the spline plots, the independent variables could be grouped into two to seven categories.

Effect estimates for mean ETco₂ and mean MAP are presented in table 2. None of the categories of mean ETco₂ and mean MAP were associated with neurologic outcome.

The results from the multivariable analysis using time-weighted average area under the curve thresholds are shown in figure 3 (see table 1 of Supplemental Digital Content 5, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B795, for both univariable and multivariable effect estimates for all time-weighted average area under the curve thresholds). After adjustment for potential confounders, there was no association between any of the time-weighted average area under the curve thresholds of ETco₂ or MAP and neurologic outcome.

The occurrence of extreme values of ETco₂ (i.e., at least one ETco₂ value less than 30 mmHg) or MAP (i.e., at least one MAP value less than 60 mmHg) was also not associated with neurologic outcome (table 2). There was no clinically relevant modification of the results by preoperative World Federation of Neurological Surgeons Grading System grade, timing of the intervention (as proxy for vulnerability to cerebral vasospasm) and treatment modality (see tables 1 and 2 in Supplemental Digital Content 6, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B796, for the results from the multivariable analyses for all three interaction terms).

Within the ranges of current clinical practice, i.e., consensus translated into a protocolized institutional strategy, none of the studied ETco₂ and MAP ranges were associated with neurologic outcome at discharge, irrespective of the duration below or above the threshold, and irrespective of preoperative clinical condition, timing of treatment or treatment modality. Even extreme hypotension and hypocapnia, still occurring although short of duration, were not associated with poor neurologic outcome.

Several studies described the effect of hyper- and hypocapnia on neurologic outcome after acute cerebral injury, primarily in an intensive care setting. Unfortunately, aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients are underrepresented. In patients undergoing endovascular treatment after an acute ischemic stroke, a higher mean ETco₂ (mean from values collected every 30 min) during general anesthesia was associated with a better neurologic outcome.¹⁰  In addition, postcardiac arrest Paco₂ disturbances were associated with a poor neurologic outcome¹¹  and prolonged hyperventilation had deleterious effects on the neurologic outcome after traumatic brain injury.⁹  Two small studies in poor-grade aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients studied the association between carbon dioxide concentrations and neurologic outcome and found that the cerebral perfusion increased when the Paco₂ increased.^33,34  Hypercapnia was well tolerated in the presence of continuous CSF drainage (thus eliminating the potential effect of an increased intracranial pressure), while increasing the cerebral perfusion and possibly preventing secondary cerebral ischemia.^33,34  To our knowledge, no studies reported on induced hypercapnia and neurologic outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients without CSF drainage. In contrast with studies reporting a benefit for higher carbon dioxide concentrations, a large retrospective cohort study in patients with acute cerebral injury found that hypercapnia (mean Paco₂, 52.2 mmHg, mean pH 7.39) was not associated with a better survival to discharge for all patients combined or for subgroups based on diagnosis (traumatic brain injury, stroke [hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke combined], and cardiac arrest). In fact, hypercapnic acidosis (mean Paco₂ 56.7 mmHg, mean pH 7.19) was associated with an increased risk of in-hospital mortality.²⁸  Other studies found that spontaneous hyperventilation was associated with a poor neurologic outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.^35,36  In contrast with most other studies in the field of acute cerebral injury, we were not able to demonstrate an association between hyper- or hypocapnia and neurologic outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients specifically.

Several studies described the effects of hypotension on neurologic outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients treated with neurosurgical clipping. To our knowledge, no such studies were conducted in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients undergoing endovascular coiling. One retrospective study of 164 aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients receiving neurosurgical clipping suggested that a decrease in blood pressure of more than 50% was associated with a poor outcome. After adjusting for age and the World Federation of Neurologic Surgeons Grading System,³⁷  these results were no longer significant.⁵  Another retrospective study in 398 aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients receiving neurosurgical clipping, defined intraoperative hypotension as a reduction of 30 mmHg or at least 20% of the initial SBP, for at least 15 min. Intraoperative hypotension was an independent risk factor for the development of a postoperative cerebral infarction (odds ratio, 3.016; 95% CI, 1.285 to 7.075).⁶  A study in 84 patients found a comparable association for intraoperative hypotension defined as a SBP less than 90 mmHg for more than 15 min.⁷  Other studies found an association between deliberately induced hypotension in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients undergoing neurosurgical clipping and a poor neurologic outcome.^38,39  The current study did not look into the effects of relatively mild hypotension (decrease of 20% from the baseline) or SBP, but did not find any association for slightly more severe hypotension (MAP less than 30% from baseline or more) and neurologic outcome, nor did it find an association for any of the absolute MAP thresholds and neurologic outcome. Previous studies have found an association between preinduction and intraoperative hypertension, and a poor neurologic outcome.^38,39  Initiation of hypertension to prevent delayed cerebral ischemia in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients admitted at the intensive care unit was not supported by any evidence.⁴⁰  The present study found no association between intraoperative hypertension and neurologic outcome after clipping or coiling of a ruptured aneurysm.

This study has several strengths. First, it is one of the larger studies relating intraoperative blood pressure and carbon dioxide ranges in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients to neurologic outcome thus far, enabling us to find relatively small effects when present. Second, in contrast to previous studies, patients undergoing endovascular coiling were also included, making the results applicable to a larger group of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients, especially since endovascular treatment has become the recommended treatment entity when technically amendable.²  Third, we used time-weighted average area under the curve as a measure to summarize the course of ETco₂ and MAP in an elaborate manner, containing not only the distance from, but also the duration below (or above) the threshold. Fourth, the results of this study are adjusted for many potential confounders, including comorbidities and postoperative complications. This may explain why we did not find an association between MAP and ETco₂ ranges and neurologic outcome, while some of the previous studies did. All the previously conducted studies were smaller in sample size and were not able to include as many confounders, and therefore, results may have been influenced by residual confounding.

Nevertheless, this study has some obvious limitations. First, Paco₂ and pH, rather than ETco₂, influence the cerebral perfusion.^8,28  Unfortunately, we were unable to calibrate ETco₂ concentrations with Paco₂ (and pH) values, since the time points of blood sampling could not be linked to the corresponding ETco₂ values. In patients presenting for elective craniotomies, small Paco₂–ETco₂ gradients around 4 mmHg were reported,⁴¹  meaning that in the present studies, Paco₂ concentrations may be slightly higher than the reported ETco₂ values. We may therefore overestimate the effect of hypercapnia, while underestimating the effect of hypocapnia. However, with the reported small gradient of 4 mmHg, we believe this is of limited effect. Second, we used the Glasgow Outcome Scale at discharge as our primary outcome measure. As improvement of functional outcome can continue even after the first year of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage,⁴²  the results of this study may not apply to long-term neurologic outcome. Third, the time-weighted average area under the curve is not easily applicable and interpretable in clinical practice. However, cohort studies in patients presenting for noncardiac surgery have shown that a (time-weighted average) area under the curve can successfully be used to summarize intraoperative blood pressure levels for research purposes.^19,30,43  Fourth, despite the relatively large sample size, some of the ETco₂ and MAP categories contained a relatively small number of patients, which may have resulted in a lack of power to detect differences. Fifth, although we adjusted the results for a large set of potential confounders, residual confounding might be present due to the retrospective nature of this study. In addition, we were not able to collect data on the presence of cerebral vasospasm during the intervention. Sixth, we had to deal with missing data. We imputed all variables except for the independent variables, because for these variables, we already had extrapolated values from the median value per minute to obtain a time-weighted average area under the curve. The imputation had little effect on the effect estimates (see table 2, Supplemental Digital Content 4, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B794, showing results for the univariable Poisson regression analyses for neurologic outcome at discharge for the complete cases and the imputed data). Finally, potential reasons for anesthesiologists to aim for certain MAP and ETco₂ ranges were not documented. However, anesthesiologists were also not influenced by the conduct of this study.

Despite sparse evidence, international guidelines currently recommend a SBP less than 160 to 180 mmHg until the aneurysm is obliterated.^2,44  Once the aneurysm is secured, higher blood pressures are allowed, but it is unknown what exact thresholds should be aimed for.²  A survey among European neuroanesthesiologists and neurocritical care physicians showed that there is no agreement on that point.⁴⁵  At present, there are no guidelines on ETco₂ management in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage patients.

The present study did not demonstrate an association between any of the ETco₂ or MAP ranges observed in current clinical practice and neurologic outcome at discharge. We therefore may conclude that a low ETco₂ and a low or high MAP might not be as bad as expected. However, this needs some nuance. Anesthesiologists most likely worked in adherence to current guidelines and standard clinical practice, focusing on an ETco₂ of 35 to 45 mmHg and a MAP greater than 80 mmHg, with a SBP less than 180 mmHg before and less than 220 mmHg after securing the aneurysm. As a result, extreme values were relatively rare (e.g., only 166 patients had at least one MAP value less than 60 mmHg, see table 1 in Supplemental Digital Content 5, https://links.lww.com/ALN/B795, where the number of patients reaching a certain threshold is shown in the first column). This study therefore does not show that we can abandon strict ETco₂ and blood pressure regulation; it merely shows that in the context of current clinical practice, no further subgroups of ETco₂ and MAP values increased the chance of a good neurologic outcome at discharge. Larger multicenter, and especially prospective, studies are required to further study the effect of ETco₂ and MAP on short- and long-term neurologic outcomes. In addition, intraoperative ETco₂ concentrations and MAP levels might only be a minor part of a very large and complex puzzle, determining neurologic outcome after a subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Intraoperative hypocapnia, hypotension, and hypertension, as they occur in clinical practice during cerebral aneurysm clipping or coiling, are not associated with a poor neurologic outcome. However, there is insufficient evidence available to abandon currently used target ranges for ETco₂ and blood pressure.

The authors thank Wietze Pasma, D.V.M. (Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands) and Jacqueline L.P. Vromen, Ph.D. (Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands) for their contribution in data collection.

Support was provided solely from departmental sources.

The authors declare no competing interests.